The Election of 1860 stands as one of the most consequential presidential contests in American history. With the United States teetering on the brink of collapse, four major candidates — Abraham Lincoln, Stephen Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, and John Bell — battled in a sectional contest that would determine the fate of the Union.
A Nation Divided
Throughout the 1850s, the United States was wracked by deepening conflict over slavery. The brutal caning of Senator Charles Sumner by South Carolina’s Preston Brooks shocked the North. The guerrilla warfare of “Bleeding Kansas” showed that compromise had failed. In 1857, the Dred Scott decision ruled that enslaved people had no rights and that Congress had no power to restrict slavery in the territories, enraging abolitionists and emboldening pro-slavery advocates.
By 1859, John Brown’s attempted raid on Harpers Ferry and subsequent execution convinced many Southerners that abolitionists were plotting violent insurrection. Lincoln himself had warned in 1858, during his famous “House Divided” speech, that the country could not endure permanently half slave and half free. By the time of the 1860 election, the Union’s very survival was at stake.
The Democratic Collapse
The Democrats, once the nation’s strongest party, shattered in 1860. At their Charleston convention, Southern “Fire-Eaters” walked out when the party refused to endorse the nationwide expansion of slavery.
- The Northern Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, architect of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and champion of popular sovereignty. His running mate, after Benjamin Fitzpatrick declined, was Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia. Douglas launched an unprecedented nationwide campaign tour, personally warning Southerners that secession would destroy the Union. Though he would lose, Douglas became the only major Democrat to fight openly against disunion.
- The Southern Democrats nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Breckinridge argued that the federal government must protect slavery in the territories. Though he claimed not to be a secessionist, his candidacy gave the Deep South a political platform for disunion. His running mate was Joseph Lane of Oregon.
The Democratic split virtually guaranteed a Republican victory.
The Rise of “Honest Abe”
The Republican convention in Chicago was fiercely contested. Front-runner William H. Seward of New York had strong antislavery credentials but was seen as too radical. Other contenders included Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron.
Into this mix stepped Abraham Lincoln, a former congressman from Illinois who had gained national prominence during the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. Lincoln was a skilled orator and, crucially, a moderate: he opposed the expansion of slavery but promised not to interfere with it where it already existed.
Through shrewd political maneuvering — including delegate deals and careful positioning as the least divisive candidate — Lincoln secured the nomination on the third ballot. He balanced the ticket with Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, appealing to Northerners concerned with slavery’s spread.
The Constitutional Union Party
As Democrats fractured and Republicans surged, a group of former Whigs and Know-Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party, hoping to rally moderates around a simple message: “The Union as it is, and the Constitution as it is.”
They nominated John Bell of Tennessee, a wealthy slaveholder who opposed secession, with Edward Everett of Massachusetts as his running mate. The Constitutional Unionists found their base in the border states, where voters desperately sought compromise to avoid disunion.
Campaign Tactics and Sectional Fears
The 1860 campaign was less about policy and more about survival.
- Republicans reassured Southerners that Lincoln would not abolish slavery outright. But Southern newspapers painted him as a radical abolitionist plotting Black equality. In most of the Deep South, Lincoln’s name did not even appear on the ballot.
- Douglas, the only candidate to campaign personally, toured the South pleading against secession. His warnings fell largely on deaf ears, but history remembers him as the lone Democrat who tried to hold the Union together.
- Breckinridge became the champion of the pro-slavery South, effectively consolidating the Deep South’s votes.
- Bell positioned himself as the compromise candidate, especially in border states like Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, but his appeal did not extend much further.
Voter turnout hit an astonishing 81%, one of the highest in U.S. history, reflecting the sense that the nation’s future hung in the balance.
The Results
The outcome highlighted the sectional nature of American politics:
- Abraham Lincoln (Republican) – 180 electoral votes; 39.8% of the popular vote
- John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat) – 72 electoral votes; 18.1% of the popular vote
- John Bell (Constitutional Union) – 39 electoral votes; 12.6% of the popular vote
- Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat) – 12 electoral votes; 29.5% of the popular vote
Lincoln won decisively in the Electoral College, carrying every free state except New Jersey, yet he did so with less than 40% of the popular vote. This imbalance — a president elected without any Southern support — fueled Southern outrage. Douglas, despite winning nearly 30% of the popular vote, secured only Missouri and part of New Jersey, making him the last major candidate to finish second in the popular vote but last in the Electoral College.
Secession and the Road to War
Lincoln’s election proved the breaking point. Just six weeks later, on December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union. Within weeks, six more Deep South states followed, forming the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as president.
Lincoln refused to recognize secession, declaring in his inaugural address that the Union was perpetual. When Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter in April 1861, the Civil War began. Four more slave states soon joined the Confederacy, and the bloodiest conflict in American history was underway.
Significance
The Election of 1860 was decisive in ending the old political order:
- The Democratic Party’s split guaranteed Republican victory and ensured slavery was the central issue of national politics.
- Lincoln’s win without Southern support demonstrated that the U.S. was now two nations under one Constitution.
- The Constitutional Union Party’s fleeting role revealed how desperately border states sought compromise — but compromise was no longer possible.
- The election directly triggered secession and civil war.
Lincoln, the 16th president, entered office not as a unifier but as the leader of a nation already breaking apart.
Legacy
The Election of 1860 followed the Election of 1856, when James Buchanan’s weak leadership failed to contain sectional strife. Lincoln’s victory shattered the Union and led directly to the Civil War.
The next contest, the Election of 1864, would test whether the Union could survive the conflict — with Lincoln himself on the ballot again, this time as a wartime president.
