From the very first presidential contest in 1788 to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s unprecedented third-term victory in the election of 1940, the United States went through more than 150 years of dramatic political change. These elections chart the transformation of a fragile young republic into an industrial powerhouse standing on the brink of global war. Along the way came bitter rivalries, shifting parties, debates over slavery and union, the upheaval of civil war, Reconstruction, the rise of progressivism, and the struggles of the Great Depression. Each election reflected its own moment in history, but taken together, they tell the story of how America grew and evolved before World War II reshaped the world.
PART I : The Founding Era (1788–1824)
The First Elections (1788–1800)
The election of 1788 marked the birth of American democracy. George Washington won unanimously, setting the precedent for presidential leadership. His refusal to seek a third term in 1796 established the two-term tradition. The election of 1796 introduced partisan rivalries, with John Adams defeating Thomas Jefferson. Four years later, in the election of 1800, Jefferson triumphed in what was dubbed the “Revolution of 1800,” as power peacefully shifted between political parties for the first time.
The Jeffersonian Era (1804–1816)
The election of 1804 saw Jefferson re-elected in a landslide, even as Aaron Burr infamously killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. James Madison carried the Democratic-Republican banner in the elections of 1808 and 1812, steering the nation through the War of 1812. By the time James Monroe won the elections of 1816 and 1820, America entered the “Era of Good Feelings,” as partisan conflict temporarily faded.
The Fractured Union (1824)
The calm ended with the election of 1824, remembered as the “Corrupt Bargain.” John Quincy Adams won despite Andrew Jackson’s popular vote lead, causing outrage among Jacksonians and reshaping American politics for decades to come.
Part II: Expansion & Division (1828–1860)
Jacksonian Democracy (1828–1840)
The election of 1828 was a rematch between John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. This time, Jackson won decisively, harnessing support from the “common man” and reshaping American politics into a two-party system of Democrats versus Whigs. Jackson easily secured a second term in the election of 1832, despite challenges from Henry Clay and third-party candidate William Wirt of the Anti-Masonic Party.
The election of 1836 saw Martin Van Buren, Jackson’s protégé, defeat a divided Whig opposition. Yet economic downturns doomed Van Buren in the election of 1840, where war hero William Henry Harrison ran the famous “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign, defeating Van Buren. Harrison, however, died just a month into office, elevating John Tyler to the presidency.
A Nation in Flux (1844–1852)
The election of 1844 brought James K. Polk to power, a “dark horse” candidate who expanded U.S. territory through the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Treaty, and victory in the Mexican-American War. The election of 1848 was the first where all states voted on the same day, with General Zachary Taylor winning for the Whigs. Taylor’s death in office handed power to Millard Fillmore.
The election of 1852 marked the last serious Whig attempt at the White House. Franklin Pierce, a Democrat, defeated Winfield Scott, but his troubled presidency deepened sectional tensions.
The Gathering Storm (1856–1860)
The election of 1856 introduced the Republican Party as a new force. Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican John C. Frémont and former President Millard Fillmore, running on the nativist American Party ticket.
Finally, the election of 1860 proved one of the most consequential in U.S. history. Abraham Lincoln, the Republican nominee, triumphed in a four-way contest against Stephen Douglas, John Breckinridge, and John Bell. Lincoln’s victory, without Southern support, triggered the secession of 11 states and set the stage for the Civil War.
Part III: War & Reconstruction (1864–1876)
The Civil War Elections (1864)
With the nation literally divided, the election of 1864 was the first held during a war since 1812. Incumbent Abraham Lincoln faced former Union General George McClellan. Lincoln, running under the temporary banner of the National Union Party, paired with Southern Democrat Andrew Johnson to project unity. Despite fears of defeat, Union victories at Atlanta and Sheridan’s Valley Campaign boosted morale. Lincoln won handily, but his second term was tragically cut short by his assassination in April 1865, leaving Johnson in charge of Reconstruction.
Reconstruction & Division (1868–1872)
The election of 1868 brought Union war hero Ulysses S. Grant into the White House. Running on “Let Us Have Peace,” Grant secured votes from freedmen in the South and Northern Republicans. His Democratic opponent, Horatio Seymour, struggled against the Republican association with victory and emancipation.
The election of 1872 saw Grant face newspaper editor Horace Greeley, nominated by both Democrats and Liberal Republicans. Grant won by a landslide, though Greeley tragically died before the electoral votes were cast.
The Disputed Election (1876)
Perhaps the most contested election in U.S. history, the election of 1876 pitted Republican Rutherford B. Hayes against Democrat Samuel Tilden. Tilden won the popular vote and appeared to have the electoral advantage, but 20 votes across Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon were disputed.
Congress established a special electoral commission, which awarded all disputed votes to Hayes by a single electoral vote: 185–184. The deal, known as the Compromise of 1877, gave Hayes the presidency but effectively ended Reconstruction, pulling federal troops from the South and paving the way for Jim Crow.
Part IV: The Gilded Age & Reform (1880–1900)
The Stalwarts and Assassination (1880–1884)
The election of 1880 saw Republican James Garfield triumph over Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock in one of the closest popular votes in history. Garfield’s reformist stance, however, alienated some party bosses. His presidency ended abruptly in 1881 when he was assassinated, elevating Vice President Chester A. Arthur.
Arthur surprised many by supporting civil service reform, but his ill health weakened his chances of running in 1884. That election pitted Republican James G. Blaine against Democrat Grover Cleveland. Both men faced scandals — Blaine with the “Mulligan Letters” and Cleveland with the “Ma, ma, where’s my Pa!” illegitimacy scandal. Cleveland narrowly won, becoming the first Democratic president since Buchanan.
Revenge of the Republicans (1888)
In the election of 1888, Cleveland lost to Republican Benjamin Harrison, despite winning the popular vote. Tariffs dominated the campaign, with Harrison favoring protectionism and Cleveland advocating free trade. Harrison’s victory rested on key swing states like New York.
The Non-Consecutive President (1892)
The election of 1892 was a rematch between Cleveland and Harrison. This time, Cleveland prevailed, becoming the only president in U.S. history to serve two non-consecutive terms. The campaign also featured Populist candidate James B. Weaver, who made a strong third-party showing, reflecting rural discontent.
The Panic and Populism (1896–1900)
Economic depression defined Cleveland’s second term, opening the way for the pivotal election of 1896. Republican William McKinley promoted the Gold Standard and tariffs, while Democrat William Jennings Bryan electrified crowds with his “Cross of Gold” speech in favor of free silver. Backed by big business and master strategist Mark Hanna, McKinley triumphed, reshaping the Republican Party into the party of business and industrial growth.
The election of 1900 was a rematch. Bryan campaigned on anti-imperialism after the Spanish-American War, while McKinley ran on prosperity and victory abroad. McKinley won again but was assassinated in 1901, making Theodore Roosevelt president — a man who would redefine American politics.
Part V: The Progressive Era and the Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1904–1920)
Theodore Roosevelt’s Landslide (1904)
The assassination of William McKinley in 1901 brought Theodore Roosevelt—the youngest president in U.S. history—into the White House. Charismatic and reform-minded, Roosevelt quickly reshaped the presidency into an active force for progressive change. In the Election of 1904, he faced conservative Democrat Alton B. Parker and cruised to victory, winning 336 electoral votes to Parker’s 140. Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” promised to regulate corporations, conserve natural resources, and protect consumers, cementing his image as the nation’s progressive champion.
Taft as Roosevelt’s Successor (1908)
Roosevelt honored his pledge not to seek a third consecutive term and hand-picked his friend, Secretary of War William Howard Taft, as his successor. The Election of 1908 saw Taft defeat William Jennings Bryan, who was making his third and final run for the presidency. Though Taft pledged to continue Roosevelt’s reforms, he lacked his predecessor’s charisma and soon found himself estranged from progressives who believed he drifted too close to conservative business interests.
The Three-Way Battle of 1912
By 1912, Roosevelt had broken with Taft, furious over what he saw as his betrayal of progressive ideals. He challenged Taft for the Republican nomination but, after being denied, bolted to form the Progressive “Bull Moose” Party. The Election of 1912 became one of the most dramatic contests in U.S. history, featuring Roosevelt, Taft, Democrat Woodrow Wilson, and perennial Socialist candidate Eugene Debs. With Republicans divided, Wilson won decisively with 435 electoral votes, while Roosevelt made history as the most successful third-party candidate, finishing second ahead of the sitting president.
Wilson’s Narrow Re-Election (1916)
Woodrow Wilson’s first term brought sweeping progressive reforms, including the Federal Reserve Act, child labor laws, and antitrust measures. However, the backdrop of World War I loomed large. The Election of 1916 pitted Wilson against Republican Charles Evans Hughes. Wilson campaigned on the slogan “He Kept Us Out of War,” appealing to isolationist voters wary of another European entanglement. The race was extremely close, but Wilson prevailed with 277 electoral votes to Hughes’ 254—the narrowest win since 1876.
The End of the Progressive Era (1920)
Though Wilson had won re-election on neutrality, by 1917 the U.S. entered World War I. His leadership during the war and subsequent push for the League of Nations defined his second term, but his health collapsed after a 1919 stroke. By the Election of 1920, the nation had tired of wartime sacrifice, racial tensions, labor unrest, and Wilson’s internationalist vision. Republican Warren G. Harding promised a “return to normalcy” and won in a landslide, securing 404 electoral votes to Democrat James Cox’s 127. The election marked the end of the Progressive Era and the beginning of a decade dominated by conservatism, business interests, and Republican hegemony.
Part VI: The Roaring Twenties & FDR’s Rise (1924–1940)
Coolidge Prosperity (1924)
Following Warren Harding’s death in 1923 and the scandal-ridden reputation of his administration, Vice President Calvin Coolidge assumed the presidency. “Silent Cal” quickly distinguished himself by cleaning up corruption, restoring public trust, and overseeing a booming economy. In the Election of 1924, Coolidge easily won a full term of his own, defeating Democrat John W. Davis and Progressive icon Robert La Follette. Coolidge carried 35 states and secured 382 electoral votes, while La Follette’s third-party run earned an impressive 16.6% of the popular vote.
Hoover’s Landslide (1928)
With Coolidge stepping aside in 1928, Republicans nominated Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, a self-made millionaire and humanitarian celebrated for his relief work during World War I. The Democrats turned to New York Governor Al Smith, the first Roman Catholic nominated by a major party. The campaign was shaped by two major issues: Prohibition and anti-Catholic prejudice. Hoover promised continued prosperity, while Smith struggled to overcome widespread hostility to his faith and his opposition to Prohibition. Hoover swept the Election of 1928, winning 444 electoral votes to Smith’s 87, and became the 31st president.
The Crash and the Great Depression (1929–1932)
Barely a year into Hoover’s presidency, the stock market collapsed in October 1929, triggering the Great Depression. Banks failed, unemployment soared, and “Hoovervilles”—shantytowns named after the president—sprang up across the nation. Hoover, committed to limited government, resisted direct relief, relying instead on business cooperation and tariffs like Smoot-Hawley. His response alienated the public and ensured disaster for Republicans heading into the Election of 1932.
FDR and the New Deal Coalition (1932)
The Democrats nominated New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised a “New Deal for the American people.” Roosevelt’s optimism contrasted sharply with Hoover’s dour campaign. FDR won a landslide, capturing 472 electoral votes to Hoover’s 59. His presidency ushered in sweeping reforms—relief for the unemployed, Social Security, labor protections, and expanded federal regulation. Roosevelt built the “New Deal Coalition,” uniting farmers, laborers, minorities, and Southern whites under the Democratic banner.
Roosevelt’s Landslide Re-Election (1936)
Four years later, with the New Deal in full swing, Roosevelt faced Kansas Governor Alf Landon. Landon criticized Roosevelt’s programs as unconstitutional and wasteful but failed to gain traction. In the Election of 1936, Roosevelt won one of the greatest landslides in U.S. history: 523 electoral votes to Landon’s 8. The Democrats dominated Congress, cementing Roosevelt’s power, though his later attempt to “pack” the Supreme Court would prove controversial.
Breaking Tradition (1940)
By 1940, the Depression was easing, but war raged in Europe. For the first time in U.S. history, a president sought a third term. Roosevelt justified his decision by citing the global crisis and the need for stable leadership. Republicans nominated businessman Wendell Willkie, who argued against Roosevelt’s break with tradition but supported many New Deal policies. In the Election of 1940, Roosevelt prevailed again, winning 449 electoral votes to Willkie’s 82. He became the only president in American history elected to a third term, setting the stage for U.S. leadership in World War II.
Part VII: Roosevelt’s Wartime Presidency (1944)
America at War
By 1944, the United States was fully immersed in World War II. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Roosevelt had rallied the nation into the largest mobilization of manpower and industry in American history. The war effort transformed the economy, ending the Depression, creating millions of jobs, and uniting Americans behind the common cause of victory.
Roosevelt emerged as not just the leader of the United States but one of the “Big Three” Allied figures, alongside Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin. Together, they planned strategy at summits in Casablanca, Tehran, and Yalta, laying the groundwork for Allied victory and the eventual postwar world order.
Breaking Tradition Yet Again
Despite his declining health, Roosevelt announced he would seek a fourth term in 1944. His rationale mirrored that of 1940: in times of global crisis, continuity of leadership was essential. To broaden his ticket’s appeal, he replaced Vice President Henry A. Wallace with Harry S. Truman, a plainspoken senator from Missouri respected for his investigations into wartime waste and corruption.
The Republican Challenger
The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the young governor of New York, who campaigned as a moderate reformer. Dewey criticized the Democratic administration for corruption and bureaucracy but refrained from outright attacking Roosevelt’s handling of the war. His running mate was John W. Bricker, governor of Ohio, who balanced the ticket with conservative credentials.
Campaign and Results
The Election of 1944 was fought against the backdrop of war. Roosevelt reassured voters that victory was within sight and defended his record as wartime leader. Dewey argued for change after twelve years of Democratic rule but struggled to overcome Roosevelt’s stature as commander-in-chief.
On Election Day, Roosevelt won 432 electoral votes and 53% of the popular vote, securing an unprecedented fourth term. Dewey carried 99 electoral votes and 46% of the popular vote, performing better than Alf Landon in 1936 or Willkie in 1940 but still far short of victory.
The End of an Era
Roosevelt would not live to see the end of the war. On April 12, 1945, just months after his inauguration, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage in Warm Springs, Georgia. Vice President Harry S. Truman was suddenly thrust into the presidency, inheriting the final months of World War II and the monumental decisions that would shape the postwar world.
Part VIII: Conclusion — From Washington to Roosevelt
From George Washington’s unanimous election in 1788 to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fourth-term victory in 1944, the story of America’s pre-war elections reveals the nation’s evolution.
- The Founding Era established the republic, tested by Adams, Jefferson, and the early party system.
- The Age of Jackson and expansion redefined democracy, suffrage, and sectional divides.
- The Civil War elections of 1860 and 1864 determined the survival of the Union.
- The Gilded Age exposed corruption, industrial power, and close contests between evenly matched parties.
- The Progressive Era pushed reforms on labor, women’s suffrage, and government accountability.
- The Great Depression and New Deal elections of the 1930s ushered in modern government as Roosevelt’s coalition dominated.
- Finally, the wartime elections of 1940 and 1944 broke the two-term tradition and cemented Roosevelt’s place as one of America’s greatest leaders.
The elections from 1788 to 1944 trace a nation’s journey from fragile experiment to global superpower. By the end of Roosevelt’s presidency, the United States was poised to lead the post-war world — politically, economically, and militarily.
